Kata – JPARC

In nō, every action is choreographed using a vocabulary of set movements called kata 型. The action of the shite in a play is composed of kata sequences performed at different times and on different parts of the stage. Kata are timed to the musical and textual progression, thus providing a visual and kinetic counterpart to the lyrics that are sung. As with kamae and hakobi, though kata may be fundamentally the same, kata are adapted to the character type that performs them.

In this section

1. Introduction

The lyrics are the foundation of a nō play. While the solo recitation of the lyrics is the ‘minimum degree’ of a nō performance, in a complete staging of a play this text is delivered by actors (performers enacting characters) and by a chorus. Long sections of the performance may appear as largely static, focusing on the recitation of internal monologues or of descriptive passages, rather than on movement. During these sections, actors stand or sit still and chant facing the audience or each other. In some cases, the chorus chants instead of the actors.

As the plot develops and the dramatic tension intensifies, movements are added to the words. In nō, movements do not accompany the entirety of the lyrics, but highlight specific passages, thus providing visual and kinetic dimensions to the recitation. Such movements rarely represent the actions of a character in a realistic manner (‘as they would appear in real life’), yet most of them are close enough to ‘real life’ actions to either appear as stylized versions of them or to evoke associations related to the words in the lyrics. These gestures are codified into units, called kata (型 ‘forms’), which are in turn connected to create sequences that, strung together, constitute the choreography of a play.

It is difficult to discern the ‘meaning’ of most kata without understanding the lyrics. To the uninitiated viewer, these may appear as abstract movements, sometimes interspersed with a few recognizable gestures reminiscent of everyday-life actions. This is because, in general, kata do not provide a true-to-life imitation of the part of the lyrics with which they are associated. The ambiguous semantics of kata elicit the active participation of the audience, who fills the gap between lyrics and movement. However, there are a few gestures whose meaning will be immediately recognizable even by the non-specialist, because they appear closer to their ‘real-life’ counterparts. As will be explained in better detail below, the choreography of a nō play loosely combines both kinds of gestures.

2. How to analyze nō movements

All kata are performed in accordance with strictly prescribed choreography, timed to lines and sometimes words in the lyrics and to music. In this sense all nō movement could be described as ‘dance,’ though certain sections comprised of sustained movement around the stage are designated in Japanese with the character for dance: these include mai 舞 (dance to instrumental music) and shimai 仕舞 (dance to chanted song). This means that the gestures of the shite actor, who is at once the main actor and the main narrator, may relate either to the lines associated with the character they represent or with any other content that is being expressed by the lyrics.

In order to disentangle the sophisticated interweaving of the dramatic and choreographic texts, we propose three approaches to nō movement analysis. The first two, “phenomenological analysis” and “semiotic analysis”, are inspired by Erika Fisher-Lichte’s theatre analysis outlined in The Routledge Introduction to Theatre and Performance Studies (2014), while the third, “formal analysis”, is an approach necessary when studying a highly codified art-form such as nō. Phenomenological and formal analysis differ in that the former considers the materiality of movements, while the latter considers their function within the choreographic text.

Phenomenological analysis 現象学的分析

A phenomenological analysis of movement considers the anatomy of the actor, the speed, rhythm, and proxemic aspects of gestures, the relationship between movements and position on the stage, etc. [1]

Analysis questions may be:

How does it look?
What sound does it make?
What is the speed of the movement?
Where on stage is the actor performing the movement?
What parts of the body are involved in the movement?

Semiotic analysis 象徴論的分析

Semiotic value refers to the meaning carried by the movement. A semiotic approach to performance analysis ‘focuses on the creation of meaning and the perceptual order of representation’. This kind of approach considers movements as signs and puts them in relation to meaning. Speaking of meaning, one enters the realm of reception which is, by definition, subjective. Movements are the visual representations of meanings that emerge from the lyrics. However, rather than being dictated by the dramatic text, meanings ultimately form in the mind of the spectator. A discussion of meaning should consider the various contexts in which the transmission thereof takes place. In the case of nō, the traditions that govern the signs used by performers may be shared at various degrees with their audience.

Analysis questions may be:

What does the movement mean?
How does the movement relate with the character?
What is the relationship between movement and lyrics?

Formal analysis 形式論的分析

Formal value refers to the structural function of movements in the larger context of the choreography. While all movements have a phenomenal dimension, not all of them necessarily carry semantic meaning. Certain movements may be performed because of their aesthetic, or formal value within the choreography. For instance, they may indicate an opening or a closure.

Analysis questions may be:

What is the role of the movement in relation with the rest of the choreography? Do they occur at set places on the stage or during the dance section?
What is the relationship between movements? Do they occur singly or in predictable series?

3. Categorization of kata

An attempt at categorization of nō movement may consider one or more of the approaches outlined above. It is important to state at the outset that, as with any other elements in nō, there is no unified, official way to categorize movements. We base our analysis on two major works in the field: that of Japanese scholar Yokomichi Mario (published in Iwanami Kōza Nō to Kyōgen, 1987) and American scholars Monica Bethe and Karen Brazell (published in Dance in the Noh Theatre, Cornell UP 1982). In addition, we examine these categorization types through the three performance analysis approaches outlined above.

Yokomichi (1987) suggests a categorization of nō movements into two types of units (which in our discussion we call kata): ‘basic blocks’ (kiso tangen) and ‘special blocks’ (tokutei tangen). He considers as ‘basic blocks’ those kata that have no univocal meaning. By contrast, ‘special blocks’ are movements that have a univocal meaning. Following a subdivision shared by other Japanese scholars, Yokomichi’s subdivision is largely based on the semantic value that is associated with each movement (semiotic analysis).

A more complex categorization of kata is offered by Monica Bethe and Karen Brazell (1982). Kata are divided into two main groups: ‘ground patterns’ and ‘design patterns’. Ground patterns are more frequently performed and form the groundwork for most dance sections. They can also carry a meaning that depends on the context. Design patterns, instead, are performed less frequently, usually at highlight passages of the play, and tend to carry more specific meaning. In addition, design patterns are further divided into ‘dance-like’, or ‘abstract’ movements, closer to ground patterns in that their relationship with meaning is ambiguous, and ‘mimetic’ movements, whose appearance is close to ‘real-life’ gestures, hence they directly denote meaning. Bethe & Brazell further subdivide both ground and design patterns into groups such as ‘foot patterns’, fan-centered patterns’ or ‘body-centered patterns’. It appears that, while Yokomichi’s approach was largely semiotic, Bethe & Brazell’s categorization mixes phenomenological analysis (what part of the body is involved in the movement) with semiotic analysis (what is the relationship between movement and meaning), and formal analysis (how frequently a movement is performed, and how it is collocated in the choreography).

The two approaches outlined above are not in contrast. Yokomichi’s ‘basic units’ generally coincide with Bethe & Brazell’s ‘ground patterns’ because their abstract appearance is prone to multiple use and semantic interpretations. Again, Yokomichi’s ‘special patterns’ generally coincide with Bethe and & Brazell’s ‘design patterns’ because their more realistic appearance makes them less ambiguous. Because of their realistic appearance, they are less versatile: they can be used to convey fewer meanings as opposed to the more abstract ground patterns. As a consequence, they occur more rarely than ground patterns. It appears that phenomenal, semiotic, and formal dimensions of movement are interconnected, though they can be analyzed separately.

The table below summarizes the Yokomichi and Bethe & Brazell’s categorization, considering phenomenological analysis (simple to complex, abstract to mimetic movements) semiotic analysis (ambiguous to univocal meaning), and formal analysis (frequency of use of movement in a play). The dotted lines between each column represent the continuum between ideal extremes, on which various kata can be found. In our current research we are going to consider the two groups (basic/ground, special/design) under the name ground kata and design kata.

Ground kata

This category contains kata such as standing/sitting, step back/forward, move around the stage, turn, jump, or stamp. It also contains recurring kata such as shikake (pointing), hiraki (opening), sayu (left-right pointing sequences), uchikomi (sweeping fan movements) etc. Movements in this category may be considered as ‘basic’ because they are frequently performed and because they have no exclusive use. Some of these kata (e.g. shikake-hiraki, stamps, sayu, shitome) are used for formal purposes as a means of starting or concluding a dance sequence. The different ways of holding a fan also may also have no semantic meaning in connection with the narrative, but have formal purposes in the choreography.

For example, as Yokomichi (237) points out, foot stamps may be used as an embellishment in an abstract dance (mai), lacking semantic meaning but carrying formal value or stamps may be as an expression of happiness, thus carrying semiotic value. The same can be said of shikake-hiraki, sayu, and other basic kata. The semiotic interpretation of such kata is ultimately determined by the lines that are chanted as they are performed. Since a semiotic analysis of ground kata is impossible without context, we have added here only a description of the action and the formal analysis of its choreographic use for each kata.

Rules govern how these basic kata that create the framework for all dances are strung together in series and how they function as ‘grammatical’ indicators. For instance, The ‘ko-zayū, uchikomi, hiraki’ series, where only one step is taken in each left-right direction of the ko-zayū, often occurs at the end of a dance, or of a section in a dance. On the other hand, the large ‘ō-zayū, uchikomi, hiraki’ series occurs in the middle of a dance, just after an internal break, such as the ageha in a kuse dance where the shite interrupts the chorus and sings a solo line. These are not the exclusive uses of these two kata series, but they are typical uses.

Ground Kata examples

Pattern name	Description	Formal analysis
Mawari	Circle the stage.	Various uses.
Sashikomi (shikake)	Point while stepping forward.	Generally followed by hiraki.
Hiraki	Spread the arms while stepping back.	Follows a point pattern and serves as a closure
Ashibyōshi	Foot stamps.	Single or multiple. When multiple they follow the rhythm of the hayashi, and are usually performed at prescribed points.
Ko-zayū	Step left then right.	It is often performed at the end of a dance sequence.
Ō-zayū	As ko-zayū, but with 3, 5, or 7 steps between shifting direction.	It is often followed by uchikomi and hiraki.
Uchikomi	Circle the right arm out, then back to the sternum, and point.	Performed as one step forward after a ko-sayū, several steps after an ō-zayū. Often followed by a hiraki. It can also be an independent pattern.
Age-ha	Starting with the open fan in front of the face, circle the fan up and out to the right while stepping back.	Accompanies the beginning of a new section, often within a larger segment, such as in the middle of the kuse or the beginning of the first dan in a long instrumental dance
Kazashi	At sumi circle the fan to the point position and extend the fan hold, then circle left.	Sometimes signals the end of a dance section and at times followed by a ko-sayū at upstage right or center.

Design kata

These kata occur less frequently then ground kata and tend to be associated with a more specific semantic meanings. However, though they are less abstract – hence less versatile – than ground kata, not all design kata have a univocal meaning. For instance, the kata called hane ōgi or ‘feather fan’, involves bringing the open fan held in the right hand across the chest so it rests on the left upper arm and then sweeping it out and to the right until the arm is extended to the right. The action can be repeated to create a sense of the wind blowing. The same action, however, is used in Nonomiya to suggest brushing dew from a fence. Another kata, called shiori, is often interpreted as ‘crying’, though it may represent another state of sorrow, not necessarily implying the shedding of tears. It may be safer to say that design kata, because of their ambiguous appearance, can be associated with a more limited number of meanings in conjunction with the text. These kata are added to fill out the ground framework of a dance or to highlight a moment in the narrative. A core group of design kata are centered on fan manipulation and most of these have names that include the word ōgi (‘fan’).

In addition, a large number of actions, thought of as kata, are described rather than having names. These include mimetic actions like scooping water or burdening a heavy object, methods of handing objects like sticks or hats, manipulation of the large sleeves, which might be twirled around the arm, or thrown over the head like a veil, and head movements focused on the mask.

Design kata examples

Kata name	Description	Semiotic analysis
Uchi-wake, or Kumo no ōgi (cloud fan)	Bring the open extended fan and left hand together in front of the chest and then while stepping backwards, spread both arms to the side, lifting the extended fan high.	Suggests looking into the distance
Kakae ōgi (cradled fan) or Tsuki no ōgi (moon fan)	Bring the open fan to rest on the left shoulder facing up and look out to the right.	Suggests looking into the distance. Often used to express viewing the moon.
Makura no ōgi (Pillow fan)	Raise the open fan nestled in the crook of the left arm so it obscures the face. To hide the face from view, execute the pattern facing right. Kneel with the right foot on the floor, left knee up.	Imitative of resting the head on a pillow, the kata often indicates sleeping, but it is also used to express embarrassment.
Hane ōgi (Feather fan)	Bring the extended fan held in the left hand to rest on the right shoulder. Next sweep the extended fan out to the left. This can be repeated and is often done walking across the stage diagonally.	Suggests wind blowing, but also arrows being shot.
Uchiawase	With open fan, bring the right and left hands together at hip level. Lift them up and out to the sides, extending the left hand, then quickly bring the hands together in a silent clap.	Expresses a sudden feeling or realization. When performed repeatedly, it may suggest flapping wings.
Maneki ōgi (Beckon fan)	Stepping back, bring both hands down to the side, extending fan and left fingers. Then lift both arms straight up till they are above the head. Bend the elbows, then straighten them and lower them in an arc to in front of the chest moving forward. It can be repeated and done with one or both arms.	Mimics a traditional Japanese beckoning gesture, but is used also to express falling rain, or treasures, or a breeze.
Muna-zashi (Chest point)	Circle the fan out to the right, in an arc in front of the body, down to the waist, and up along the body’s central axis and then straight out to point front.	Strongly see or identify an object.
Yūken	Begin like a muna-zashi, but instead of pointing, continue to circle the fan up and out to the right and down. It can be repeated, like drawing a figure eight in the air.	Used to express intense emotion.
Shiori	Bring one or both hands close to the eyes	Used to express sorrow.
Gasshō	Bring two hands together, palms facing up, with fingertips touching.	Mimics the gesture of praying, but can also be used to express gratefulness.

Notes

[1] Fischer-Lichte, Erika. The Routledge Introduction to Theatre and Performance Studies. Routledge, 2014, p. 55. Phenomenal value refers to the ‘perceptual order of presence’, that is, to their physical manifestation. A semiotic approach to performance analysis ‘focuses on the creation of meaning and the perceptual order of representation’. Phenomenal value is intrinsic to any movement as it is perceived, yet this does not make it an absolute value. Just because phenomenal value depends on individual perception, it may differ depending on who perceives the object.

Names of kata often differ by acting school and sometimes are phrase descriptions. The list here uses the Kanze terms, the translations are based on the Japanese names and included here merely to provide an image.

Contributor: Monica Bethe and Diego Pellecchia