Shōdan

Each dan, or scene within an act (ba) of a noh play is further divided into smaller subsections called shōdan, which are the basic building-block units of a performance text. These shōdan have names, some of them dating back to Zeami’s time (like shidai, ageuta), others formalized later. Each has a set poetic, rhythmic, musical, or kinetic form. In addition, certain of the shōdan appear in specified places in the text (like the kuse which contains a core narration by the chorus, usually for the shite). Seminal work by Yokomichi Mario in the mid-twentieth century coined the term shōdan, defining and categorizing the existing ones and noting standard progressions of shōdan series. He identifies three main categories: those with chanted text (utai-goto), those played by the instruments without chant (hayashi-goto), and those that are performed in silence (shijima-goto), such as silent entrances, or exists). Utai-goto (e.g. sashi, ageuta, and kuse) are characterized primarily by their poetic form and melodic-rhythmic style, while hayashi-goto include entrance and exit music by the drums and flute as well as instrumental accompaniment to dances (mai and hataraki) and other non-textual stage action like onstage costume changes (monogi). Scholars today use shōdan analysis as one means of identifying authorship.

In this section

1. Chant subsections (utai-goto shōdan) 謡事小段
2. Instrumental subsections (hayashi-goto shōdan) 囃子事小段
3. How shōdan are connected 小段の繋ぎ方

1. Chant subsections (utai-goto shōdan) 謡事小段

Sung shōdan are discrete units defined by their linguistic and rhythmic characteristics, including whether or not they are accompanied by the drums. Standard shōdan are named in the utaibon (chant book), though sections of text in some noh are left unlabeled. The language is either in prose (sanbun) or poetry (inbun). Poetic text is either loosely formulated or has the strict 7+5 syllable count typical of Japanese poetry. Speech (kotoba) is in prose and has no metric or rhythmic definition, though it follows a loosely defined vocal contour. Most passages in poetry are accompanied by the hand drums (ko-tsuzumi and ō-tsuzumi) and embellished with short flute passages. When the stick drum (taiko) joins the ensemble, it accompanies passages in free rhythm or in ōnori (whole-beat) rhythm. The stick drum generally enters towards the end of the play.

Utai-goto can be further subdivided into smaller categories. 

• Matched (or congruent) (hyōshi ai) rhythm adheres to an eight-beat rhythmic unit and is always accompanied by the drums. In the utaibon, these passages have sesame-seed marks (fushi) next to the syllables of text indicating the melodic and rhythmic contour. The matched styles of chant are further subdivided by the system by which the syllables match the beat:
  • Ōnori matches one syllable to one full beat.
  • Chūnori matches one syllable to each half beat.
  • Hiranori, the most common, spreads the 12 syllables of a 7+5 poetic line over the 16 half beats of the rhythmic 8-beat line in a syncopated manner where certain syllables are extended.
• Unmatched (or non-congruent) (hyōshi awazu) rhythms have a loose flow. The recitative-like sashinori occurs frequently, while the more melismatic einori is reserved for reciting waka poems.  The drums accompanying unmatched chant play an independent line that converges with the song at the end of the passage.
• Prose sections are most often in stylized speech (kotoba) without drum accompaniment

Characteristics of utai-goto shōdan

The following chart shows the correlation between the poetic meter of the text, the rhythmic and melismatic characteristics of the chant, and the type of instrumental accompaniment. These three attributes combine to define the general shōdan category. A given shōdan category often includes more than one named shōdan. For example, the “uta” category (strict meter, hiranori rhythm, hand drums play) contains the following shōdan: “ageuta” centered on the upper register (higher pitched), “sageuta” centered on the lower register (middle and lower pitch), as well as “shidai,” an introductory song and “rongi,” a longer narrative section.

Examples of utai-goto shōdan

• Shidai 次第: A brief introductory chant sung in standard matched rhythm (hiranori) by one or more actors. The last two lines are repeated by the chorus (jitori) in a low pitch in free rhythm, although this is not always indicated in the libretti. The poetic meter is 7/5, 7/5, 7/4 syllables. The shidai serves as a thematic prelude to the play and is usually sung by the waki (and wakizure, if any) immediately after the shidai entrance music, when the actors have assembled on the stage proper.
• Issei 一声: a vocal passage sung by the shite or waki, usually to non-matched rhythm. In the case of the chant being sung by shite, is often sung by characters in a heightened state.
• Nanori 名ノリ: name introduction. Conventionally, the nanori is performed by the waki, or at times by the shite or tsure, while standing at the upstage right corner of the stage. This location on the noh stage is called nanori-za (also called jōza) and is next to the shite pillar. Waki nanori are generally spoken (kotoba), while shite nanori are often chanted.
• Sashi サシ: Unmetered text to unmatched rhythm sung by the shite (or by the shite with the shite-tsure), or, in some cases by the waki (or by the waki with the waki-tsure). If the sashi is sung by the shite, usually the chorus takes over after the first lines. Sashi also occur after the kuri and before the kuse shōdan in the typical kuri-sashi-kuse sequence. In the sashi only the last few syllables of each sentence are modulated by fushi, or melismatic embellishment. This way of chanting is used both in the yowagin and tsuyogin modes, and is commonly referred to as sashi-utai, a style used to sing lines that are sashi shōdan.
• Sageuta 下歌: Short 7+5 syllable chant sung at a low pitch, in hiranori rhythm. It often precedes the ageuta.
• Ageuta 上歌: Long 7+5 syllable chant sung at a high pitch in hiranori rhythm. It is often used in lyrical passages or for descriptions of scenery or narration of stories. It can be found in michiyuki “travel songs” or machiutai “waiting songs”.
• Mondō 問答: Literally “question and answer”, mondō is a dialogue between characters. It is performed in kotoba (speech) mixed with recitative (shashinori) style.
• Kuse クセ: Kuse are a core section of a play, often dedicated to the narration of events crucial to the story, or to the narration of past events that can illustrate themes developing in the play. Kuse can occur in the first or in the second half of the play. The kuse focuses on the shite, who may either be seated (iguse) or may dance. Derived from the kusemai dances prevalent in the 14th and 15th centuries, a full kuse scene would include a series of shōdan: shidai, kuri, sashi, and kuse.  This may be abbreviated by deleting the first one or two shōdan in the series. Kuse are often followed by an instrumental dance. The kuse is sung in hiranori rhythm, either in yowagin or tsuyogin modes. The chorus sings most of the chant, with one or two single lines in the middle called ageha sung by the shite. This shite line shifts the pitch from a lower register to the upper register. See also DANCE.
• Waka 和歌: Lyrical passages sung after an instrumental dance, or that frame the dance with the opening lines sung as an introduction and the full poem sung at the conclusion of the dance. The composition of these poems  follows the 5-7-5-7-7 meter typical of the waka poetry form. Waka passages in nō are sung in unmatched rhythm, typically einori.

2. Instrumental subsections (hayashi-goto shōdan) 囃子事小段

The instruments also play sections without chant. These include entrances and exits, on-stage costume changes, and dances to instrumental music. The two hand drums may play alone, with the flute entering occasionally, or the flute may lead. In nō that include the taiko, the stick drum generally enters in the second act or towards the end of a one-act play. Sometimes the taiko joins the ensemble for only one or two shōdan, ceasing to play before the end of the nō.These shōdan are described in better detail in the INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC and DANCE sections.

Examples of entrance music pieces 登場音楽の例

• Shidai 次第: Slow and formal introductory instrumental music for the waki (or, less often, the shite) played by the ko-tsuzumi and ō-tsuzumi with nōkan (flute) passages. It is composed of three sections which are often abbreviated to two or even to one. The nōkan begins with a piercing hishigi pattern; then the two hand drummers play repeating ground patterns noted for their uneven pulse and the elongated vocal calls (kakegoe).
• Naka-iri 中入り: Literally, ‘go inside’. Played when the shite or waki or tsure exit the stage along the hashigakari. Usually the naka-iri is performed in the middle of the play and signals the end of the first ba.
• Haya-fue 早笛: Literally, ‘fast flute’. A musical passage for a hayashi-goto shōdan, played to introduce a powerful character such as a god or a spirit. After the introductory pattern is played, the curtain is quickly lifted. The character appears on the hashigakari, or proceeds rapidly to the stage.
• Monogi ものぎ: A passage in which the shite dons a costume or headgear with the assistance of kōken stage assistants. This costuming can take place at kōken-za, upstage right, or on the stage proper. During the costuming, the ko-tsuzumi and ō-tsuzumi play a slow, repeating pattern, which the nōkan (flute) joins at times. The musicians adjust the duration of their music to the actual time needed for the costuming.

The INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC section has a longer description of entrance/exit shōdan.

Examples of dance sections 舞用囃子の例

• Iroe イロエ: Brief circling of the stage by the shite in roles of graceful female characters, accompanied by soft music.
• Chu-no-mai 中ノ舞: A medium length instrumental dance performed by the shite or shite-tsure to a moderate tempo. It usually has an introduction (kakari) and three sections (dan). The dance can be performed with or without the taiko.
• Maibataraki: 舞働 Short dance to fast instrumental music performed by strong characters such as gods, dragons, demons or spirits. It can take various forms, from a simple circling of the stage to more complex movements including mimetic gestures.

The DANCE section has a more complete description of the types of instrumental dances. 

3. How shōdan are connected 小段の繋ぎ方

Scholar Yokomichi Mario sees the typical progression of shōdan to be 

formal beginning → less structured development → more structured development 

Thus the opening scene of many plays follows this structure:

• Shidai (strict poetry 7-5, 7-5, 7-4 to matched drums, most structured)
• Nanori (speech, prose, no drums)
• Sashi (loose poetry, unmatched drums, often omitted)
• Michiyuki, a type of ageuta (strict poetry to matched drums)

Likewise, the full kuse scene derived from a kusemai (a narrative dance performed by women entertainers and incorporated into the nō by Kan’ami) consists of:

• Shidai (most structured)
• Kuri (ornate, often pairs of parallel lines, sung freely with many decorative melismatic extensions of syllables and ending with a long drawn-out syllable accompanied by melodic interplay on the flute)
• Sashi (recitative in loose poetry, unmatched drums)
• Kuse (varied poetic lines; beginning in the lower register, rising to the higher register, ending on the lowest note.)

The principles of abbreviation and duplication apply. So, a simpler first scene would be:

Nanori → michiyuki (ageuta)

A simplified kuse scene is often just

Sashi → kuse

An extended kuse scene would keep the full form: 

shidai → kuri → sashi → kuse

but double the parts of the kuse itself and end with the words that appear in the opening shidai. 

lower register → higher register →lower register → higher register 

ending on the lowest note with the last two lines from the shidai.

Contributor: Monica Bethe, Diego Pellecchia